Integrating Intercultural Email Communication and the TV News in the Foreign Language Classroom

* Mariolina Pais Marden
* mpm@uow.edu.au
* University of Wollongong, Australia

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to describe the benefits associated with the integration of email communication between native speakers (NS) and non-native speakers (NNS) and the Italian daily broadcast telegiornale in the context of foreign language learning. For one semester sixteen second year students of Italian at an Australian University participated in one-to-one email interactions with Italian NS and discussed a range of topics presented in the news. As part of the project learners also contributed to weekly oral discussions in class on relevant cultural issues emerging from both the telegiornale and the email interactions with the NS. Over the course of the semester students negotiated the content of both email and oral discussions with little intervention from the instructor aside from the requirements that the topics discussed were relevant to the Italian current situation and that communication took place entirely in the target language. This study profiles an integrated approach which provides a personal and cultural connection with contemporary Italian language and culture, encourages discussion and reflection on relevant issues, and increases students’ interest in the target language culture.
Introduction

Several studies into the pedagogical uses of electronic communication between native speakers (NS) and non-native speakers (NNS) of a foreign language have discussed the benefits associated with the integration of email activities into the teaching and learning of a language subject (Beavois & Eledge, 1996; Gray & Stockwell, 1998; Fedderholt, 2001; Roed, 2003). Some of these benefits include increases in motivation, reduction of anxiety, increased participation and development of learner autonomy, opportunities for authentic communication with a real audience and enhanced cultural awareness (Stockwell 2003, p. 38).

A number of studies have described carefully designed email exchange projects in which learners participated in discussion tasks with a very specific focus (Kern, 1996; Chen, 1998; Muller-Hartmann, 2000) and which were fully integrated into the ongoing structure of assessment and students’ classroom interaction (Warschauer, 2001). Other studies have indicated that the type of activities and tasks carried out by learners during the email interactions not only influence the nature of communication but also learners’ attitudes and motivation in relation to the exercise (Kern, 1998; Mueller-Hartmann, 2000; O’Dowd, 2001; Warschauer, 2001). These studies also suggest that goal-oriented tasks and activities that allow for interaction and collaboration are generally more valuable for motivating students and encouraging their participation and involvement in the learning process.

In the particular context of this project the use of intercultural email communication was combined with discussions on issues presented in the Italian telegiornale and integrated into the teaching and learning of a second year Italian language and culture subject. For one semester students participated in one-to-one email interactions with Italian NS and discussed a range of topics presented in the Italian news. As part of the project, students also actively participated in and contributed to oral discussions in class on relevant issues emerging from both the telegiornale and the email interactions with the NS.

Research into the integration of the Italian telegiornale within a teaching and learning context has investigated its cultural significance and pedagogical value. Several studies have recommended integrating it into the structure of the language classroom to improve students’ linguistic skills and broaden their knowledge of modern Italian culture and society (Diadori, 2000; Absalom, 2002), encourage discussion and reflection on relevant issues (Losi, 2001) and increase students’ motivation and interest in the target language culture (Balboni, 2000).

Both email communication and the Italian telegiornale provided students with the opportunity not only to be exposed to and extend their knowledge of contemporary Italian language and culture, but also to connect and engage with it on two different levels: through authentic communication with a real audience and through observation, reflection and discussion on culturally significant issues.

From a practical point of view, the choice of email communication proved to be appropriate as it is technically very simple to use and allows for flexibility in the choice of time and space. It also allows learners to review earlier messages and discussion threads and to reflect on their linguistic and cultural content after completing the exercise. In a similar way, the integration of the Italian telegiornale to encourage oral production and stimulate discussion seemed ideal, as it is an authentic and always up-to-date resource (Absalom, 2002) that is easily accessible on a daily basis, either through TV or the Internet and requires minimal technical support.
Method
Purpose

The purpose of this project was to provide students of an intermediate Italian language and culture subject with the opportunity to interact with suitable NS correspondents and discuss issues relevant to the current Italian situation. A second aim was to create a personal connection with the target language culture and increase students' cultural awareness.
Setting

The project consisted of two components, the telegiornale discussions and the email interactions. Each component involved the following phases:

Telegiornale discussions:

1. Watching the Wednesday morning edition of the Italian news. 2. Preparation for the class discussion. Each student prepared a presentation based on one item selected from the news. Each student prepared a list of relevant vocabulary to be distributed to the class for students’ reference as well as a list of relevant questions and issues to be posed to the class for discussion. 3. Participation in the class discussion on Thursday. Two students selected by the instructor led the discussion based on the chosen topic. All students in the class participated in the discussion.
Email interactions:

1. Initiate the email interactions. Each student was assigned to a NS correspondent and sent her/him a first introductory message in Italian. 2. After receiving a reply, each participating student proceeded with the virtual dialogue with the Italian correspondent. 3. Every week each student wrote a message to the designated partner and discussed one or more topics presented in the news or emerged from the class discussions. The email interactions involved both composing messages and responding to the messages received from the Italian partner.
Participants

Sixteen second-year students of Italian at an Australian university participated in the project. The students, twelve female and four male, had all completed at least three semesters of formal Italian language study, either at university level or at secondary school level, and had therefore developed a good level of competence in the target language. Eight of the sixteen Australian participants were students between 18 and 22 years of age, eight were mature age students between 25 and 40.

Research into sustainability of email exchanges between NS and NNS suggests that establishing a positive personal relationship with the correspondents is vital in order to maintain a viable electronic partnership (Muller-Hartmann, 2000; Belz, 2002, Stockwell & Levy, 2003). Research also indicates that when communication is engaging for both participants, the likelihood that interaction continues for a longer period of time increases considerably (Stockwell, 2003).

In this project, providing the Australian students with suitable correspondents was a crucial issue, not only to increase the chances of sustained interactions and continuity throughout the exercise, but also to keep both correspondents motivated and engaged throughout the project. When the possibility of participating in the project was initially discussed in class, 80% of the mature age students expressed the desire to communicate with NS belonging to a similar age group, with compatible interests and attitudes, rather than with young high school or university students. A broader selection of NS participants was therefore involved in the exchange. Individual correspondents were chosen by the instructor on the basis of their personal characteristics (including age group, gender, profession and interests) as well as their willingness to actively participate in the exchange.

All NS participants agreed to participate in the project on a voluntary basis and were highly motivated and willing to commit themselves to interacting with their Australian partners. Eight of the NS participants were high school students aged between 17 and 19 and eight were adults between 25 and 40 years of age.
Role of the Instructor

Aitsiselmi (1999) points out that the role of the instructor as a facilitator, advisor or mentor is crucial to ensure that learners engaged in an email exchange project are encouraged to pursue their learning in the appropriate direction. Absalom (2002) claims that such a role is vital for a teaching program which integrates the telegiornale as the instructor needs to teach explicitly and provide clear guidelines to the students involved in the various tasks.

At the beginning of the project students were provided with a set of instructions and suggestions for composing and interpreting messages as well as various examples on what was considered to be successful participation. They were also given specific guidelines on how to watch the news and what to focus on while preparing their presentation. The instructor then guided students in the process of making meaning of the issues presented in the news and also in the development of their virtual relationship with their correspondents. Support and feedback was provided during the process of writing and communicating with the NS and during the process of analysing messages and reflect on particular aspects of the other culture. Students and instructor had the opportunity to discuss and reflect together on the particularities and challenges of the interactions.

Communication with the teacher has proven to be valuable as students felt comfortable discussing difficulties and concerns related to the email interactions as they arose, rather than having to deal with them on their own. The instructor made sure students were not intimidated by the fact they were communicating with NS, by engaging with them on a regular basis and regularly seeking feedback on the progresses of the exercise.

The role of the instructor was not to impose the topics to be discussed or to be prescriptive but rather to guide students and facilitate their experience. As mentioned earlier, students negotiated the content of the interactions with their correspondents and independently selected relevant issues for the class discussions. They had the freedom to actively construct the environment for their learning (see Laurillard, 2002) by focusing the discussion on topics that were not limited to a specific list of pre-determined items but significantly covered their interests, experiences and opinions.
Assessment

Angelo and Cross (1993) and McCarthy (1999) agree that learning tasks need to be assessed in order to be taken seriously and that it is vital that students see a clear relationship between their performance in a particular task and formal assessment. In order to motivate students’ participation and encourage interest in the exercise (see Ramsden, 1994, p. 185), a percentage of the final mark for this subject was dedicated to both the email interactions and the class discussions.

The email interactions were worth 15% of the overall mark for the subject and the class discussions were worth another 15% to make up a total of 30%. Both the exchanges and the telegiornale discussions were evaluated with reference to a set of four criteria which was explained to the students at the start of the project: communication, linguistic accuracy, content and cultural awareness. Each of the four criteria was weighted at 25% of the 15% of the overall mark for each task.

The communicative criteria referred to the ability to lead a discussion and to understand and respond appropriately to questions and observations posed in class. In the case of email interactions it related to the communicative aspects of the messages such as clear questioning and answering, comprehension of the preceding discourse and coherent development of ideas and dialogue. The linguistic criteria related specifically to linguistics accuracy (grammatical correctness and fluency) and to coherent use of linguistic expressions. Content related to the depth and quality of both oral presentations and email discussions. In the case of email interactions, messages that were more complex and sustained were marked more favourably than those that limited the discussion to more superficial topics. Cultural awareness related to the ability to comprehend cultural references and to discuss and reflect on events and culturally significant content as well as the ability to compare aspects of Italian and Australian culture
Data collection

In order to learn about students’ attitudes in relation to the integration of the Italian telegiornale and the email discussions with the NS, NNS participants were asked to complete two questionnaires. The first questionnaire was distributed at the start of the semester to find out about students’ prior experience of viewing the Italian news and communicating with NS in an online environment. The second one was handed out at the end of the semester to gather some feedback on students’ perceptions on the value of the exercise and on their experience of discussing the issues presented in the news both in class and online.

A second method of data collection included saving all online interactions between NS and NNS as well as audio recording all class discussions. The email exchanges were systematically forwarded to the instructor and saved in chronological order. The class discussions were recorded and later revisited and analysed by the researcher using qualitative techniques.
Results and Discussion

Data from the questionnaires, the online exchanges and the class discussions were employed to report and justify the findings.

In the questionnaire administered at the beginning of the semester students reported that they did not feel confident about presenting on the telegiornale because they had difficulties understanding and interpreting the content of the news. They also commented that they felt anxious about discussing Italian current affaires with correspondents who were obviously more informed then them and more familiar with the topics considered. A number of students were concerned about making too many mistakes in the correspondence and some worried about not being understood by the NS.

An analysis of students’responses to the questionnaire completed at the end of the semester revealed a shift in their attitude towards the tasks of both watching the telegiornale and interacting with the NS. When asked to describe the experience of watching the telegiornale and to comment on some of the issues encountered, students observed that the routine of regularly watching and analysing the news helped them becoming more familiar with what was reported and also assisted them in the task of summarising the content of the news for presentation in class and for the online discussions. A number of students noted that, despite the difficulty of grasping some of the topics presented, particularly in relation to Italian politics, they felt that, as the weeks progressed, they were able to understand more of the cultural context of the telegiornale and became more interested in following Italian current events.

When asked to comment on the value of the online discussions with the NS, students pointed out that the task of discussing the news with the Italian correspondents contributed to improve their linguistic skills and offered them the unique opportunity of being exposed to authentic language. They noted that, by the end of the semester, they felt more confident in their use of Italian as they could express themselves more effectively on many issues. Some students praised the opportunity to listen to different point of views and opinions, reflect on differences and similarities between the Australian and Italian culture as well as exchange ideas and engage in interesting discussions. The results of the end of semester questionnaire revealed that overall the exercise had a positive effect on students’ motivation for learning about Italian culture and society and for improving their language skills.

Analysis of the online interactions between native and non native speakers and observation of the class discussions revealed that the tasks of interpreting, analysing and synthesising relevant issues presented in the telegiornale as well as discussing them with the Italian correspondents contributed to improve the quality, depth and strength of students’ arguments and debates. It is particularly interesting to note that, as the semester progressed, the content and quality of both class discussions and email messages improved dramatically, with contributions covering a wider range of topics and becoming more structured and relevant.

In terms of linguistic development, it is interesting to point out that in a number of cases the NNS clearly followed examples of language usage modelled by their NS correspondents and tried to incorporate words and expressions learned from their email partners into both their online and oral contributions. Analysis of the messages exchanged also revealed a range of cases where the NS provided assistance to the NNS in acquiring new lexical terms and expressions. In a small number of cases, and only when explicitly asked, the NS corrected some the mistakes made by the NNS.
Conclusion

The integration of intercultural email communication and the Italian TV news into the teaching and learning of this Italian language and culture subject had a number of benefits for the students involved. It not only provided learners with the opportunity to be exposed to and broaden their knowledge of contemporary Italian language and culture but also allowed them to connect and engage with the target language culture on a personal basis, through authentic communication with native speakers.

Through observation and analysis of the Italian news and through regular interaction both in class and with their correspondents, learners were able to listen to different points of view and opinions on relevant matters, reflect on differences and similarities between Italian and Australian social and cultural themes, and critically compare their own views and those of others. They also had the chance to express their opinions and perspective on a range of issues, engage in interesting discussions with classmates, NS and instructor and receive individual responses and feedback from their correspondents.

From a linguistic point of view, the combination of different activities associated with the use of both media allowed students to develop their receptive abilities of aural/visual comprehension, as well as their productive oral and written abilities. Through regular practice in presenting and discussing main points and arguments in both written and oral form students developed their presentation and organisational skills and became more effective and confident speakers and writers.

The integration of both media encouraged students to participate at two different levels. While the telegiornale served as an authentic resource to represent contemporary Italian culture and society and as a departure point for oral and email discussions, email communication served as preparation for face-to-face discussions and offered students a real audience that assisted them in the task of making meaning of the news, reflecting on them and expressing their point of view.

In conclusion, this project has created an environment in which learners were able to express themselves in oral and written form in the target language as well as discuss and reflect on a number of relevant issues. The project also had a positive effect on students’ motivation and interest towards the subject. It encouraged them to expand their knowledge of Italian culture and society and develop an ongoing interest in current affaires. A final important benefit of this exercise was that it gave students the chance to construct their own learning experience and develop a sense of autonomy and independence (see Laurillard 2002, pp. 67-69). The skills that were developed could be applied in the wider world as well as the university context.
Author

Mariolina Pais Marden is Associate Lecturer in Italian in the Modern Languages Program at the University of Wollongong, Australia. Her principal research interests include online communities of practice and the use of communication technologies and authentic tasks for second language learning.
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The Use of Computer-assisted Language Learning

Ask not what computers can do for language teaching; instead, ask what you can do for language teaching using computers

Takako Kawabata
Aichi Gakuin University

With the development of user-friendly computers and software and the rapid reduction in their prices in the last decade, the use of computers has become widespread and has expanded in homes, offices, and schools. In the 21st century, everyone is required to use computers to some extent to function in our society.

In Japan, in an educational context, audio language labs are gradually being replaced by computer centers with internet connections and university local area networks (LANs). With the introduction of computer-assisted learning (CAL) and the financial aids provided by the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture (Monbukagakusho), which aims to internationalize the education offered and researches conducted in Japanese universities, the implementation of computers at universities would be extended further in the future.

With regard to the use of computers in language teaching and learning, teachers and researchers have been testing and developing ways to implement computers in their teaching context since the 1960s when computers were first introduced as part of language teaching. However, many language teachers continue to be uncertain about the manner in which they can effectively use computers in the educational context. Since we are at the transition stage where we are moving from simply “using computers” to “using computers effectively” in our classroom, let us discuss what language teachers can do to assist the development of learners’ language acquisition using computer-assisted language learning (CALL) in our current teaching context.

Warshauer (1996) categorized the development of CALL into three main phases—behavioristic CALL, communicative CALL, and integrative CALL—which were the result of advancements in computer technology and changes in outlook toward language teaching.

CALL in the past
“Behavioristic CALL” was implemented in the 1960s and ’70s and was based on the behaviorist theories of learning, which included drill and practice. At this juncture, the use of computers and software in language teaching was, as Taylor (1980) describes, the “computer as a tutor.” One of the best known systems of its type was the PLATO system that included central computers and terminals and performed tasks such as vocabulary drills, grammar explanations and drills, and translation tests (Ahmad, Corbett, Rogers, & Sussex, 1985).

The next phase, i.e., the “communicative CALL,” introduced in the 1970s and ’80s was the result of a communicative approach, which was one of the mainstream methods in second/foreign language teaching at that time. Since this approach emphasized the process of communication and highlighted the use of the target language in real settings, the programs that appeared in this period featured practice in a non-drill format. Software that had not been specifically designed for CALL was also employed for writing practice. This type of application in CALL is the so-called “computer as a tool” (Brieley & Kemble, 1991).

CALL at present
Currently, we are at the “integrative CALL” stage, which is a result of the expansion of technological advancements such as multimedia technology and the Internet. These two innovations allow the learners to access a more authentic learning environment. As we know, multimedia enables one to integrate four skills, and the Internet provides opportunities to interact in an English language environment 24 hours a day. Although the scope of CALL has widened in the last 40 years, it is not yet a perfect solution for teaching/learning all aspects of a language. The quality of programs has not yet reached the level of assessing the users’ natural spoken language or the appropriateness of use in the context of the situation.

Implementation of CALL in literacy development
Since computers and software have not yet met the requirements in our educational context, it may appear plausible to await the advancement of technology; however, we should think about what the teachers can do to assist language learning using the equipment currently available? The use of computers in the context of foreign language teaching continues to offer a great deal of potential to support students’ literacy needs inside and outside the classroom. If we use computers in more interactive ways, they could be of great assistance in developing the learners’ language acquisition.

One potential use of computers in the classroom might be their use as a tool for monitoring. Since there are approximately 40 students in each classroom in Japanese schools and universities, it is difficult to monitor each student in a large classroom. First, the teacher could display a text using a projector and use it for the purpose of modeling or demonstrating. The students could then be asked to answer some comprehension questions and send their answers to the teacher’s computer. In this manner, computers could be introduced as a tool to confirm the learners’ understanding of a text. If a software capable of assessing learners’ literacy skills were developed, it would significantly assist teachers in conducting their classes.

The other potential use of computers might be in teaching students of different proficiency levels in the same classroom. Software such as that used for the test of English as a foreign language (TOEFL) computer-based test modifies questions according to the test-taker’s responses. By implementing this type of software, students of a more advanced level could study further, while learners who require more support could stay and practice at the same level or study easier materials.

Computers can also be used as an exercise tool in the classroom or as a self-study tool before and after the class or at home. Each student can use a computer for drilling activities anytime and anywhere, at his/her own pace, without the teacher’s supervision. Students who have difficulty attending school due to geographical reasons or adult learners who do not have sufficient time to attend lessons might benefit from the use of computers and software. With regard to further literacy development, students could use computers for studying unfamiliar words, highlighting important words in a passage, and drawing arrows to show lexical chains in the text to recognize how the latter achieves its coherence. Still and moving pictures might also be used to assist the learners’ reading comprehension. Further, Japanese students living in non-English speaking environments would benefit greatly from the Internet, which provides opportunities to access materials written in English, since these students might have difficulty accessing authentic English texts.

Although computers have considerable potential in language teaching, the teacher’s role in the classroom continues to be very important since technology has not yet reached a level where it can be relied upon solely. Therefore, it would be better to implement software as a supplementary teaching tool along with the teacher’s input.

CALL in the future
The role of computers in language teaching has significantly changed in the past 40 years from merely “drill and exercises” to a somewhat “authentic communication” tool. This leads to the question of what the next generation of CALL will be? Underwood (1989) termed it as “intelligent CALL,” which involves the use of computers and programs with a certain level of intelligence. However, it might take a long time for “intelligent CALL” to be put into practice.

As pointed out by Warschauer (1996), “The effectiveness of CALL cannot reside in the medium itself but only in how it is put to use” (p. 6). Thus, my fellow teachers, ask not what computers can do for language teaching; instead, ask what you can do for language teaching using computers.

Ahmad, K., Corbett, G., Rogers, M., & Sussex, R. (1985). Computers, language learning and language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Brieley, B., & Kemble, I. (1991). Computers as a tool in language teaching. New York: Ellis Horwood.

Taylor, R. (1980). The computer in the school: Tutor, tool, tutee. New York: Teachers College Press.

Underwood, J. (1989). Linguistics, computers, and the language teacher: A communicative approach. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Warschauer, M. (1996). Computer Assisted Language Learning: An Introduction. In Fotos, S. (ed.), Multimedia Language Teaching (pp. 3-20). Tokyo: Logos International.

The Internet and Foreign Language Education: Benefits and Challenges

Meena Singhal
http://www.gse.uci.edu/ed168/resume.html
The University of Arizona, USA

Introduction
Over the past few years, the Internet has emerged as a prominent new technology. The influence of such a powerful technological tool has pervaded all aspects of the educational, business, and economic sectors of our world. Regardless of one's familiarity with the Internet, it is repeatedly made reference to. News broadcasters and commercials, for example, will now provide web addresses, and even the recent movie, "The Net" was sparked by the impact of this new technology (Mike, 1996). Regardless of whether one uses the Internet or not, one must be clear about the fact that the we have entered a new information age and the Internet is here to stay.

Because the use of the Internet is widespread in numerous fields and domains, without a doubt, it also carries great potential for educational use, specifically second and foreign language education. This paper will therefore focus on the following questions: 1) What is the Internet? 2) How can various facets of the Internet be used in the second and foreign language classroom? 3) What are the benefits of employing the Internet in such a setting? 4) What are the disadvantages or obstacles the Internet presents in a second language classroom? Lastly, the implications of using the Internet in second language classrooms will be discussed. The Internet is the latest in a series of technological innovations for second language education. In order to understand the role of the Internet, it would be useful to provide a brief history of technology and language teaching, present a survey of the technological resources available to second language learners, and, finally consider the role of the Internet and its possibilities.
Technology and Foreign Language Education: A Brief History
Technology and foreign language education are no stranger to one another. In the sixties and seventies, language laboratories were being installed in numerous educational settings. The traditional language laboratory was comprised of a series of booths, each providing a cassette deck, and accompanying microphone and headphone. Teachers monitored their students' interactions by using a central control panel. The basic premise behind this technology was that if verbal behavior was modeled, and then reinforced, students would quickly learn the language in question. The language lab activities were therefore grounded in a stimulus-response behavior pattern. The more drill practice the students encountered, the faster they would learn the second language. While the language laboratory was a positive step in linking technology and language education, it was soon recognized that such activities were both tedious and boring for learners. Furthermore, the amount of student-teacher interaction was minimal, and individualized instruction was irrelevant. Besides the pedagogical deficiencies, the audio equipment was cumbersome and prone to breakdown, and had only one function-to disseminate auditory input. These factors put together led to a shift to the communicative approach to second language education, namely, computer assisted language learning.

Microcomputers and quality CALL software provided yet another medium for language learning. Its potential as both a teaching and learning tool are widely written about in the educational literature. At present, there are a variety of computer applications available including vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation tutors, spell checkers, electronic workbooks, writing and reading programs, as well as various authoring packages to allow instructors to create their own exercises to supplement existing language courses. In addition to the range of software available, CALL has also been shown to increase learner motivation (Blake, 1987). Chun and Brandl (1992) also propose that the interactive and multimedia capabilities of the computer make it an attractive teaching/learning tool. Computers can provide immediate feedback to students and students can work at an individualized pace. Software can be designed to include sound, graphics, video, and animation. Moreover, information is presented in a non-linear sequence enabling learners to select the exercises or concepts they wish to review.

Despite the advantages and widespread use of CALL, it continues to suffer from criticisms for several reasons. Many believe that learning and practicing grammar rules of a foreign language through fill-in-the-blank exercises, for example, does little to improve a speaker's ability to produce grammatically appropriate utterances (Armstrong & Yetter-Vassot, 1994). Others point out that CALL suffers from its rigidity in light of the complexities of natural languages. For example, a program designed to provide drill practice on French verb conjugation is useful for only that and nothing else. Recently, however, we are beginning to see encouraging and promising results in the area of CALL software development. Interactive video and programs which provide more authentic and communicative task-based activities are being created, which are more in line with the current theoretical and pedagogical views of learning.
What is the Internet?
While the computer is now used in some form or another in most language classrooms, and is considered standard equipment, the Internet is also gradually being introduced in the second language classroom as teachers become more familiar with it. The Internet is a confederation of thousands of computers from various sectors of society such as education, business, government and the military. It is a network of thousands of computer networks (Lewis, 1994). Each individual system brings something different to the whole (databases, library services, graphs, maps, electronic journals, etc), and the end result is a vast accumulation of information. It is a worldwide network of computers that interact on a standardized set of protocols which act independently of particular computer operating systems, allowing for a variety of access methods to the Internet. For example, the Internet can be accessed from an IBM computer in a student's home in Australia, or from a Macintosh computer at a school in Canada. It can therefore be conceived of as the equivalent of a telephone system for computers. It can be used to both exchange information through electronic mail, newsgroups, listservs, professional on-line discussion groups, and so forth, as well as to retrieve information on a variety of topics through the World Wide Web.
The Internet and Electronic Mail
Although the Internet has been available to most people, only recently have educators been realizing the potential the Internet can have in second and foreign language classrooms. The following section will therefore consider some of these potential benefits and advantages of incorporating such technology in language courses. The Internet has been used by some language instructors in creative ways - one of these innovations being use of electronic mail (e-mail), a specific feature of the Internet. Overall, e-mail can encourage students to use computers in realistic, authentic situations in order to develop communicative, and thinking skills. E-mail is easy to use and even teachers intimidated by computers can quickly become adept at using e-mail with their students. Furthermore, even timid or inhibited students can benefit from the meaningful interaction and communication e-mail makes possible. Kroonenberg (1995), for example, employed e-mail in her ESL classes at Hong Kong International School. She relates her initial experiences of working with two classes of ESL multinational students in grades 9-12, and a homogeneous group of summer school students involving Cantonese-speaking 14 and 15 year olds. The Dragon Bulletin Board System (BBS) using the TELIX communications software was established in order to allow students and teachers to send messages to each other, as well as make public entries on discussion conferences.

During the initial stages, students were logged on the system and each student created a password. Students were simply asked to write freely as in a dialogue journal. Kroonenberg (1995) believes this allows students to become familiar with the system and further allows their ideas to flow. Writing on e-mail can therefore be used to generate ideas about a topic, or can enable learners to free-write without any impositions. E-mail can also be used in various conference-type formats or to generate discussion. For example, Kroonenberg often provided students with topics of high interest in order to generate more writing. In fact, one student who was part of this project stated, "I usually get involved in the BBS because the subjects are interesting and I have a lot to say about them" (p. 25). Writing topics often involved school issues or issues that were directly relevant to the students' lives. In other conference assignments, students are the main audience. Students read entries and then respond to them via e-mail. This allows each student to express their opinion. In this manner, all opinions are voiced and heard, something which may not always occur in oral discussions in the classroom.

Chat rooms can also be carried out through e-mail. In this situation, two or more individuals can "talk" on-line about various topics or issues. For instance, language learners can be paired up and can be given a debatable topic to discuss. Such experiences, once again stimulate authentic communication and assist students in developing specific communication skills such as arguing, persuading, or defending a particular point. Listservs from around the world can offer news and discussion groups in the target language providing another source of authentic input and interaction. Cononelos and Oliva (1993) organized e-mail exchanges between entire classes of students in order to generate discussion, improve writing skills, and promote peer interaction. In this particular project, advanced level Italian students employed e-mail newsgroups to improve both their writing, as well as their knowledge of contemporary Italian society. In this manner, the teaching of culture was also facilitated through the immediate feedback and contact of L2 speakers who were interested in informing others about their culture.

E-mail can also be used to communicate long-distance with language learners in other schools, or other countries for that matter. A study exploring the potential of long-distance communication involving second language learners was carried out by Chang (1993). The goals of the study were to provide students with a real context for improving their writing, help them to expand their ideas of "content-area" reading and functional writing across cultural boundaries, make students familiar with international telecommunications, and investigate with students, the potential effects of telecommunications on literacy acquisition (Davis & Chang, 1994).

The subjects involved in the study included undergraduate students at Taiwan's National Kaohsiung Normal University (NKNU) and students at University of North Carolina at Charlotte (UNCC). The 8-week teleconference began with Prompt 1 in which students were asked to write letters to one another. In addition to personal introductions, students were asked to include a focus on their previous English language learning experiences and the difficulties associated with this. In Prompt 2 and 3, students were asked to use their textbooks on the History of English Language to report on interesting uses of English, (ie. connotations, spelling, etc). Prompts 4 and 5 asked the learners to work with sections of specific texts to comment on pronoun and lexical use, as well as syntactic structure. In the final prompt, both groups of students collected examples of English slang and idioms used in each country's films and music. Questions pertaining to the above were asked and responded to by students in each group.

Davis and Chang (1994) point out that as writers on both sides of the world shared questions and comments, jokes began to surface. Over time, the students' reading and writing began to change as well. Through surveys and informal case studies of student writing during the conference, it was found that for the most part, students' writing had improved in both fluency and organization. Surveys also indicated that students saw some carry over to their study literature, and that they had a better understanding of English usage. While the above examples illustrate a few uses of e-mail in the second and foreign language classroom, without a doubt e-mail can provide authentic communication and can foster awareness of both the language learner and the languages they are learning.
The Internet as a Teaching and Learning Tool
In addition to the communication benefits of the Internet, the Internet can also be used to retrieve and access information. The World Wide Web is therefore a virtual library at one's fingertips; it is a readily available world of information for the language learner. While the Internet offers numerous benefits to the language learner, a few such possibilities are examined here, in the context of language learning.

Perhaps one of the most essential pedagogical principles of language teaching is one that emphasizes the study of language in a cultural context. I, along with many other language instructors believe that language and culture are inextricable and interdependent; Understanding the culture of the target language enhances understanding of the language. To this end, the Internet is a valuable resource to both language teachers and learners. As discussed previously, e-mail on the Internet allows language learners to communicate with native speakers. In this manner, the Internet facilitates the use of the specific language in an authentic setting. The Internet can also be used to acquire information from language resources for a variety of purposes. For example, students can access current information from countries around the world. They can obtain geographical, historical, social/cultural, economic, and political information from the countries in which the target language is spoken. Students can read web versions of daily newspapers and same-day news reports from sources such as the French Embassy's gopher service, the daily Revue de Press (Armstrong and Yetter-Vassot, 1994). Such experiences can allow learners to participate in the culture of the target language, which in turn can enable them to further learn how cultural background influences one's view of the world.

The Internet also serves as a medium for experiencing and presenting creative works. While students can peruse the information on the Net, they can also use it as a platform for their own work such as essays, poetry, or stories. Numerous public schools, for example, are making use of the World Wide Web for publishing student work which can be accessed by other web users. Students therefore become not only consumers of content, but in fact generate the content.

As Mike (1996) describes, the use of the Internet has also been shown to promote higher order thinking skills. A language teacher, for example, may instruct learners to search for specific information. Searching the Web requires logic skills. Once information has been obtained, the results must be reviewed which requires scanning, discarding, and evaluative judgment on part of the learner. The information must be put together to make a complete and coherent whole which entails the synthesis process. Such an endeavor permits students to practice reading skills and strategies. The Internet also promotes literacy for authentic purposes, as stated previously. In addition to being a supplement to reading materials, especially current information, when students are exploring the Net, they are essentially exploring the real world. Such browsing or exploration can also lead to incidental learning as they encounter a variety of information in this way. Communication with native speakers furthers literacy development for authentic purposes, enables language learners to compare student perspectives on an issue, and allows them to practice specific skills such as negotiating, persuading, clarifying meaning, requesting information, and engaging in true-life, authentic discussion. Promotion of literacy also occurs within a social context. The interaction that results from the above situations can lead to cooperative projects and increased communication between students from all over the world, in turn leading to the development of social skills. Finally, use of the Internet can promote computer skills and the technical and conceptual experiences of using a computer.

Lastly, the Internet provides supplemental language activities which can provide students with additional practice in specific areas of language learning. These include reading tests and comprehension questions, grammar exercises, pronunciation exercises possible through the available multimedia capabilities, cloze tests, vocabulary exercises, and so forth. Students can search the Web for such sites, or teachers may recommend specific sites on the Web. Published lists are also available from various sources. For example, Paramskas (1993) offers a list of sites for both language teachers and language learners, some of which relate to issues of language learning, others which use language as a medium for discussion of culture or current affairs, and others which assist in locating native speakers.
The Internet Challenges
Up to this point in time, the above discussion has described some of the potential benefits of the Internet and how it can be used in the second or foreign language classroom. However, such a discussion would be incomplete without addressing the disadvantages or obstacles related to the use of the Internet in the language classroom. While the Internet and its various facets offer a great deal to the language learner, it is not without its problems. The nature of the Internet itself can be a disadvantage at times. When lines are busy due to many users, it may take time to access information or browse the Net and technical glitches themselves can lead to frustration. Lack of training and familiarity on part of the teachers can make it difficult to implement the Internet in the language classroom. This requires that school administrators budget for training in this area. Foreign language teachers are especially anxiety prone to computers since they often have little experience with computers. For the most part, computers in schools are used for business or computer science courses. Costs related to training, as well as on-line costs of using a provider are issues that may interfere with implementing such a technology in schools, especially in schools that have little funding. Censorship may also be a concern to language programs and instructors. The Internet offers access to all types of issues and topics, some of which are unsuitable for children, and this in itself may result in various problems. While some precautions can be taken at the present time, they are not full proof by any means. Equity issues may also present difficulties when attempting to implement such technology in the classroom. As the commercial sector begins to assume a more prominent role in the Internet's infrastructure, rural and inner-city schools, already hard-pressed to provide Internet access, may find it less affordable. This is certainly discouraging for both language teachers and students in such educational settings (Mike, 1996). Many institutions such as these may also not have the computers or computing facilities necessary to implement such type of technology.
Implications and Conclusion
Despite these limitations and obstacles, it must be realized that the Internet's educational potential is immense. Although electronic, the Internet is an entity related to literacy - people still interact with it entirely through reading and writing. For this reason alone, the Internet is a technology that will, without a doubt, have significant implications for both teaching and learning. So what does this imply for language teachers and learners? Teachers must become familiar with using the Internet and its various functions such as e-mail. They must also learn how to use specific search tools in order to access information, search for lesson plans, or material and ideas to supplement their lessons. Lastly, language teachers must learn now to transfer files from Internet sites to their own computer and vice versa. Obtaining information or literature on the Internet, either through the Net itself, through books, or by attending workshops and courses will further assist this process. To avoid facing the same difficulties or problems associated with use of the Internet, teachers can ask students to keep track of problems that arise during use. In essence, language teachers must take the plunge and approach the Internet as a learning experience themselves. The more enthusiastic and more knowledgeable language teachers are, the more successfully they can implement Internet in the language classroom. For the language learner, the Internet offers a world of information available to students at the touch of a button. While it must be recognized that the Internet cannot replace the language classroom or the interaction between the language teacher and student, if offers a vast amount of information and lends itself to communication possibilities that can greatly enhance the language learning experience.

Certainly at this point in time, several questions need to be asked to guide future research in this area. How can use of the Internet correspond to the communicative or pedagogical goals of language teaching? How will the Internet and its related facets assist language learners in functioning in the global community? What will the real impact of the Internet in foreign language classrooms be? How can the Internet be used more effectively along side the present language curriculum? While these questions have been examined to some degree, researchers and language educators must further investigate and implement this technology to provide others with guidelines in this area.

Without a doubt we are in the center of a "monumental technological paradigm shift, one which will eventually change the way that all instructors teach and the way students learn" (Jensen, 1993). While technology should not take over the language classroom, it must be embraced in order to allow educators to do those things which they are unable to do themselves, or those which will improve what is currently being done in the classroom. As we approach the next century, it is essential that we make informed decisions about how the Internet can be successfully integrated into the language classroom. If we as educators do not rise to the challenge - who will?
References
Armstrong, K.M. & Yetter-Vassot, C. (1994). Transforming teaching through technology. Foreign Language Annals, 27(4), 475-486.

Blake, R. (1987). CALL and the language lab of the future. ADFL Bulletin, 18(2), 25-29.

Chun, D.M., & Brandl, K.K. (1992). Beyond form-based drill and practice: Meaning- enhanced CALL on the Macintosh. Foreign Language Annals, 25(3), 255-267.

Cononelos, T. & Oliva, M. (1993). Using computer networks to enhance foreign language/ culture education. Foreign Language Annals, 26(4), 527-534.

Davis, B. & Chang, Ye Ling. (1994/95). Long distance collaboration with on-line conferencing. TESOL Journal, 4(2), 28-31.

Jensen, R. (1993). The technology of the future is already here. Academe, 8-13.

Kroonenberg, N. (1994/95). Developing communicative and thinking skills via electronic mail. TESOL Journal, 4(2), 24-27.

Lewis, P.H. (1994, August 9). Who's the coolest Internet Provider? The New York Times, p. 12.

Mike, D. (1996). Internet in the schools: A literacy perspective. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 40(1), 1-13.

Paramskas, D. (1993). Computer-assisted language learning: Increasingly integrated into an ever more electronic world. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 50(1), 124-138.

The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. III, No. 6, June 1997
http://iteslj.org/ http://iteslj.org/Articles/Singhal-Internet.html

Second Language Acquisition Theories as a Framework for Creating Distance Learning Courses

Eileen N. Ariza and Sandra Hancock
Florida Atlantic University, USA
Abstract

Moore and Kearsley (1996) maintain distance educators should provide for three types of interaction: a) learner-content; b) learner-instructor; and c) learner-learner. According to interactionist second language acquisition (SLA) theories that reflect Krashen’s theory (1994) that comprehensible input is critical for second language acquisition, interaction can enhance second language acquisition and fluency. Effective output is necessary as well. We reviewed the research on distance learning for second language learners and concluded that SLA theories can, and should, be the framework that drives the development of courses for students seeking to learn languages by distance technology. This article delineates issues to consider in support of combining SLA theories and research literature as a guide in creating distance language learning courses.

Keywords: Distance learning; second language acquisition and distance learners; interactionist second language learning; ESOL and distance learning; SLA theories and creating distance-learning courses; language learning and distance technology
Second Language Acquisition Theories as a Framework for Creating Distance Learning Courses

Following the trend of distance learning courses in other domains, distance learning courses for second or foreign language learners are on the rise throughout the world, thus confirming the prediction that “distance learning will soon become the hottest education fad in decades” (Gonzalez, 1997, p. 8). Fad or not, the boom in language distance learning opportunities is evidenced by the number of search results evoked by searching Dave’s ESL Cafe ( www.eslcafe.com/) and other language search engine sites. Much of the appeal of distance courses stems from their ability to provide access to individuals who are motivated to learn or improve proficiency in another language, but who are geographically isolated or restricted by work, schedules, and/or other considerations.

Current thought about distance learning calls for courses to be designed in ways that follow the constructivist philosophy in which learners are seen as constructors of their own knowledge through active participation in the learning process, using computers as a problem-solving tool (Dixon-Krauss, 1996; Gavelek and Raphael, 1996; Lapp, 2000; Passerini and Granger, 2000; Willis, Stephens, and Matthew, 1996). This type of learning is based on ample interaction in the learning process that allows students to resolve cognitive quandaries through concrete experience, collaborative discourse, and reflection (Brooks and Brooks, 1993).

Moore and Kearsley (1996) maintain that distance educators should provide for three types of interaction: a) learner-content, b) learner-instructor, and c) learner-learner. According to interactionist second language acquisition (SLA) theories, two-way interaction is critical in learning a second language (Pica, 1996). Interaction must consist of “comprehensible input” (Krashen, 1985, 1994), which allows the message to be understood, as well as “output” (Swain, 1995), which provides opportunities for expression and negotiation of meaning.

When distance second language course design and practice adhere to quality distance learning pedagogy and are driven by SLA theories and research, the subsequent courses can provide learners with opportunities to acquire other languages in more flexible and accessible settings than traditional classrooms and language labs. In this article, we discuss SLA innatist and interactionist theories and research to examine the appropriateness of using Moore and Kearsley’s distance learning interaction model to design lessons for second language learners. Due to the paucity of research about interaction and distance language courses, we include literature that highlights computer-assisted language learning in English as a second language (ESL) and foreign language traditional classrooms and language laboratory settings. We have taken this approach to the literature because of the potential application to distance learning practice and the possible influence it can have in defining a second language distance learning research agenda.

To better understand the issues and ramifications of language acquisition on distance learning courses, we begin this discourse by presenting an overview of major second language acquisition theories that advance the notions of comprehensible input, comprehensible output, and interaction, differentiating this term from Moore and Kearsley’s usage of interaction.
SLA Theories

Theorists place different values on the role of interaction in second language acquisition (SLA). Krashen’s (1985, 1994) theory became a predominant influence in both second language teaching practice and later theories. Krashen postulates that SLA is determined by the amount of comprehensible input, that is, one-way input in the second language that is both understandable and at the level just beyond the current linguistic competence of learners. Similar to Vygotsky’s “zone of proximal development” (1962), Krashen’s scaffolding theory is referred to as i+1. Viewed as an innatist perspective, this theory maintains that a second language is acquired unconsciously in a manner similar to the acquisition of a first language. According to Krashen (1996), acquiring language is predicated upon the concept of receiving messages learners can understand (1996). Teachers can make language input comprehensible through a variety of strategies, such as linguistic simplification, and the use of realia, visuals, pictures, graphic organizers, and other current ESOL strategies.

While Krashen (1994) believes that only one-way comprehensible input is required for SLA, others take an interactionist position acknowledging the role of two-way communication. Pica (1994), Long (1985), and others assert that conversational interaction facilitates SLA under certain conditions. According to Lightbrown and Spada (1999), “When learners are given the opportunity to engage in meaningful activities they are compelled to ‘negotiate for meaning,’ that is, to express and clarify their intentions, thoughts, opinions, etc., in a way which permits them to arrive at a mutual understanding. This is especially true when the learners are working together to accomplish a particular goal . . . “(p. 122). Pica (1994) goes on to say that negotiation is defined as “modification and restructuring that occurs when learners and their interlocutors anticipate, perceive, or experience difficulties in message comprehensibility” (p.495). A variety of modifications, which may involve linguistic simplification as well as conversational modifications such as repetition, clarification, and conformation checks, may be used to gain understanding. The interaction hypothesis of Long and Robinson (as cited in Blake, 2000) suggests that when meaning is negotiated, input comprehensibility is usually increased and learners tend to focus on salient linguistic features. Cognizance of these language forms and structures is seen as beneficial to SLA.

Other interactionist theorists apply Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theory of human mental processing to define the role of interaction in SLA (Lightbrown and Spada, 1999) and hypothesize that second language learners gain proficiency when they interact with more advanced speakers of the language, for example, teachers and peers. Scaffolding structures such as modeling, repetition, and linguistic simplification used by more proficient speakers are believed to provide support to learners, thus enabling them to function within their zones of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1962).

Although theorists adhering to interactionist thought consider both input to, and input from, the learner as important, output is often viewed as secondary. However, Swain (1995) in her “comprehensible output hypothesis” asserts that output is also critical and hypothesizes that it serves four primary functions in SLA: 1) enhances fluency; 2) creates awareness of language knowledge gaps; 3) provides opportunities to experiment with language forms and structures; and 4) obtains feedback from others about language use. Comprehensible output assists learners in conveying meaning while providing linguistic challenges; that is, “. . . in producing the L2 (the second, or target language), a learner will on occasion become aware of (i.e., notice) a linguistic problem (brought to his/ her attention either by external feedback or internal feedback). Noticing a problem ‘pushes’ the learner to modify his/ her output. In doing so, the learner may sometimes be forced into a more syntactic processing mode than might occur in comprehension” (Swain and Lapkin in Chapelle, 1997, p. 2b). From this perspective, comprehensible output plays an important role in interaction.

In summary, interactionists elaborate upon the innatist notion of comprehensible input explaining that interaction, constructed via exchanges of comprehensible input and output, has at least an enhancing effect when meaning is negotiated and support structures are used. Based on this premise, distance second language learning courses should be designed to provide interaction that includes negotiation of meaning where comprehensible output results from input.
Using SLA Theory and Research for Quality Design of
Distance Language Courses

SLA theory and research can be useful in designing quality second language distance education courses when applied to the three-component model of distance learning interaction supported by Moore and Kearsley (1996). By reviewing the literature, we can determine implications for developing distance education courses that are most appropriate for the learning of a second language.

Moore and Kearsley (1996) describe three types of interaction that they believe should be integrated in distance learning courses in general. We offer an overview of each category and make reference to complementary SLA literature that supports the interactionist SLA view. Based on their overlap, the information can be helpful in generating and establishing distance second language course practice.
Learner - Content Interaction

According to Moore and Kearsley (1996), a major role of the distance educator is to present appropriate content and to promote interaction between this content and the learner in ways that will cause the learner “to construct knowledge through a process of personally accommodating information into previously existing cognitive structures” (p. 128). Such interaction should induce the learner to develop new or modified knowledge and skills. In addition to textual materials used to present subject matter via distance learning, a wide array of options exist such as audio and video recordings, computer software, radio and television broadcasts, and interactive media such as CD-ROM and videodiscs.

Learner-content interaction cannot occur if learners do not understand the content; therefore, a critical design feature for second language learners includes comprehensible input. Creed and Koul (1993), among others, developed two models, the concurrent model and the integrated model, that make the meaning of text more accessible in materials for non-native speakers. Components of the concurrent model include attention to vocabulary selection, text form and rhetorical structure, and learner support. The integrated model calls for the use of illustrations, explications, and a variety of genres to provide motivation and increase accessibility.

Graddol (1993) points out that many language issues need to be addressed to ensure learner understanding. He counsels that the linguistic and communicative competence of learners needs to be determined, such as familiarity of particular discourses, including the media discourses of distance learning. Cultural issues pertaining to the subject matter, prior knowledge, and nonverbal language issues may also affect understanding. Diaz-Rico and Weed (2002) suggest that teachers find out about the cultural background of students. Additionally, implications of page design and visual representations should be considered in course design. Warschauer (1998) finds that the use of strategies such as re-reading the text, soliciting help, or using a dictionary aids the comprehension of text-based, computer-mediated discussions. Anderson (2002) maintains that the teaching of meta-cognitive strategies can help students develop stronger language learning skills.

Because of the limited skills of beginners to access materials in the target language, Lambert (1991) believes that distance instruction is best suited for learners with intermediate and advanced second language skills. However, Davis (as cited in Boyle, 1995) maintains that audio and videocassettes provide comprehensible input for beginners and thus may mitigate anxiety. Krashen’s (1985) insistence upon a non-threatening environment to facilitate language acquisition by lowering the affective filter is yet another strategy to enhance learning for both beginners and advanced language learners. The use of multimedia may provide additional support for comprehension and also accommodate different learning styles. For example, an individual who needs more cooperative learning to interact with others, may respond better to an assignment that necessitates group communication (e.g., synchronous activities, group discussions), while a more field independent individual might prefer an individual assignment with time to be introspective (Savard, Mitchell, Abrami, and Corso, 1995).

Software programs that have inherent learner-content interaction, such as one described by Chapelle (1997) in which the computer acts as a participant while learners construct questions about past actions to solve a crime mystery. The computer responds to moves and queries, asking for clarification when it does not “understand.” Such computer-assisted language learning activities have pragmatic and linguistic objectives structured into tasks to allow second language learners to learn while doing. Distance second language course designers should plan for interaction that results in the use of targeted language objectives, allowing learners to practice new forms, functions, and structures.

Another software program described by Chapelle (1997) uses hotspots that learners click when they do not understand idioms. This technique helps make input comprehensible and may also cause learners to notice form, which is beneficial in language acquisition. This and other computer-assisted language learning practices, such as highlighting forms and signaling when errors occur, may be integrated in learning applications. Chapelle cautions that using links to provide lexical meanings does not provide appropriate interaction because it does not require comprehensible output from learners. Activities should be planned so that they provide interaction demanding comprehensible output in the form of learners attending to and modifying problematic forms.

Learner-content interaction can occur through cooperative learning activities while providing opportunities to develop linguistic and communicative competence. In Blake’s study (2000), findings indicated that the cooperative learning strategy called “jigsaw” is superior to information gap, decision-making, and opinion tasks. Jigsaw activities combine learner-content interaction with learner-learner interaction.
Learner - Instructor Interaction

According to Moore and Kearsley (1996), most learners regard learner-instructor interaction in distance learning environments as essential. The instructor’s role is to present content and then maintain the learners’ motivation and interest, while assisting them as they interact with the content. Individualized attention is essential because it addresses the needs, motivation, and performance of each individual learner. The instructor’s responses to learners’ application of content are seen as especially valuable, as they provide constructive feedback concerning learners’ achievement of instructional objectives.

In distance learning environments, the instructor acts as facilitator, providing guidance and support while presenting content in ways that encourage engagement. Creed and Koul (1993) recommend that the instructor help to make linguistic features and content comprehensible. Repetition, comprehension checks, and other strategies can be used in learner-instructor interactions to negotiate meaning. Even though techniques may be embedded in course design and strategies explicitly taught to learners, some learners might need additional assistance in order to increase their understanding and reduce anxiety.

In discussing asynchronous computer-mediated-interaction, Lamy and Goodfellow (1999) remind instructors that “self-sustaining threads arise in response to questions deemed worth asking by the learning community, but these questions may not necessarily coincide with those deemed worth asking by the teacher” (p. 57). Recognizing that formal learning programs require that a syllabus be followed, Lamy and Goodfellow caution that this situation may cause the dialogue to be controlled by the teacher, which discourages learner reflection and facilitative interaction. A goal of their online course was to discuss language and learning strategies. As a result of this emphasis, findings indicated that learners engaged in what they termed reflective conversations. Although online instructors did not control the shifts in topics of the postings, they did encourage students to “talk about words,” which did provide adequate control while allowing learners certain freedom. In addition, instructors interrupted on occasion to re-focus students on form, a practice that, according to Chapelle (1997), causes learners to notice form without interfering with the overall communicative goal. Because of this input, Lamy and Goodfellow believe that students viewed instructors as experts who modeled language use, which they hypothesized would encourage learners to practice these terms and phrases.
Learner - Learner Interaction

Moore and Kearsley (1996) describe learner-learner interaction in distance education as “interlearner interaction, interaction between one learner and other learners, alone or in group settings, with or without the real time presence of an instructor” (p. 131). They point out that younger learners may find this more stimulating and motivating than adult and advanced learners. Different types of learner-learner interaction should be thoughtfully planned to address goals. For example, inter-learner discussion can promote reflection about content, while group settings are appropriate for other types of collaborative projects.

Many researchers believe that computer-mediated interaction for second language learners has beneficial features (Blake, 2000; Lamy and Goodfellow, 1999; and Warschauer, 1998). Warschauer believes it is less threatening than face to face interaction and may encourage risk taking while allowing students to set their own pace. In addition, it allows learners to have access to their texts, which can be later analyzed (Lamy and Gooddfellow, 1999; Warschauer, 1998) as well as provide an equalization effect on participation. Warschauer (1998), citing his own study, found that computer-mediated interaction has greater syntactical and lexical complexity than face to face exchanges, which may be as a result of increased planning time. Citing the findings and conclusions of Pellettieri’s study of interactional modifications in synchronous electronic discussion by intermediate level learners, Warschauer also infers that computer-mediated interaction is more beneficial than oral exchanges because the extended time to process and view language increases the possibility that learners will monitor and edit their speech (Krashen, 1985), resulting in interlanguage of higher quality. Blake (2000) is convinced that computer-mediated interaction is similar to face to face interaction, and is “without the temporal and spatial constraints imposed by the classroom” (p. 132).

Lamy and Goodfellow (1999) suggest that asynchronous computer-mediated-interaction may be better for encouraging meta-linguistic reflection, because it allows learners more time to think about their own and others’ messages. Based on their study, Lamy and Goodfellow argue that reflective conversation “. . . that is, computer-mediated asynchronous discussion around language topics and language-learning issues” (p. 43), should be integrated in the design of distance second language courses. It is seen as beneficial because it has features that facilitate SLA, including negotiation of meaning and attention to form and strategy use.

Lamy and Goodfellow (1999) also found that for learners to be effective in asynchronous chat settings, they needed linguistic skills that enabled them to produce texts that:

Are well formed and unambiguous not only linguistically but also as pieces of interactive discourse . . . [and] move the topic on in a way that takes account of what precedes and creates curiosity for what might follow, that is, that contains the combination of familiarity and unpredictability typical of “contingent interaction (p. 54).

These points made by Lamy and Goodfellow suggest that this type of activity may not be appropriate for beginning second language learners, a view supported by Lambert (1991) in referring to distance second language courses overall.

Designers of distance language learning courses should consider learner, pragmatic, and linguistic goals in planning learner-learner interaction tasks. Chapelle (1997) reminds us that the type of learner goal affects the interaction. Communicative goals focus on the construction and interpretation of linguistic meaning, while non-communicative goals focus strictly on form. Embedding language function and linguistic objectives in interaction offers learners opportunities to develop linguistic and communicative competence.
Conclusion

Based on this review of literature, SLA theory, research, and practice, an interactionist model may be applied to Moore and Kearsley’s three-component distance education interaction model (1996). If these factors are considered, distance second language courses appear to hold promise for providing students with comprehensible input and output while they interact and negotiate meaning. However, this review also reveals that a need exists for more extensive research about distance second language course design.

With careful planning, instructors can design courses that encourage comprehensible input, output, interaction, and negotiation of meaning, characteristics identified by interactionist theorists as crucial for SLA. While distance second language courses may lack valuable face to face interaction, they do provide viable alternatives to learners that are geographically isolated or need flexible learning environments.
References

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The Analysis of the Four Compact Disc Ready Made Material of Computer Assisted Language Learning

The self-access computer mediated language learning program is usually designed on the basis of five principles. The five principles are interactivity, usability, content appropriateness, effectiveness, and performance. The following paragraph will discuss and discribe the five principles of the self accessmnet of the four compact disc ready made material.

The first compact disc ready material is “Easy to Sing“. It is a good material especially for children of 5-11 years old or for Kindergarten students to Elementary School students. It is suitable for practice in listening and singing ( pronunciation ). It can also be used for Junior High School students for different activities, for example listening and writing. It can be used for practicing in singing while having breaktime after feeling tired of studying grammar, for instance. The perfomance of the material is good for the presentation both in the layout of the screen, the colour and the ilustration. The Compact disc is easy to operate or navigate.

The second compact disc is “Learn English“. This compact disc consists of four main part with different themes. Those are word practice, speaking practice, easy game, and hard game. this material can be use for practicing listening and speaking ( expecially in pronunciation ). It is also able to used for playing game to improve vocabularies. This material is suitable for Kindergarten to Elementary School students. The phrases game can be used for Junior High School students. All the bottons of the instruction are easy to navigate or operate. The performance of the materials are beautiful and interesting.

The third compact disc is “Issues in English “. This compact disc consists of more complicated buttons of instruction with different functions, so it needs carefull with to navigate them. The materials mainly consist of getting started, listening, vocabulary, grammar, speaking, and writing from level I to IV for each. This material of English is suitable for students of Elementary School to Senior High School. The performance of the illustration is excellent.

The fourth compact disc is “Speak More“. This disc mostly consist of material for listening and speaking with different themes from the simple I ( Alphabet ) to more complicated one ( Bussiness ). The materials are suitable for students of Kindergarten to University ( from children to adults ). They are prepared to make listening and speaking activities more interesting with modern performance. The buttons of instruction are quite clear to navigate.

In conclusion, after analyzing the four compact disc ready made material of Assisted Language Learning. I found that the materials have met the five principles. Those are interactivity, usability, content appropriateness, effectiveness, and performance. Finally, I would like to thank to Mr Hartoyo, M.A, Ph.D, as the ICT lecturer for providing the material to the students and we believed that it will give more circumtances and atmospheres in our English teaching from Kindergaten to University in Indonesia.

Computer-Aided Instruction on College English teaching and learning in supporting role

Abstract The computer-aided teaching of modern Education theory advocated by the new teaching model. In this paper, computer-assisted instruction on students from the self-study abilities, college English Intensive Reading and listening for the enhancement of classroom and other aspects of their college English teaching and learning for the supporting role. ��
Keywords: computer-assisted instruction Multimedia College English

The rapid Development of science and Technology of today, English as an international common language for the value of self-evident. Therefore, how to make students truly master the English as well as the international communication tool to keep abreast of the latest technology in today's world dynamics, is that many language researchers have been working to conduct research. Although the university is very important in English non-English majors in a program which set up the longest and most time-consuming, however, the current college English teaching in the prevalence of a "time-consuming and more, the effect is relatively small" problem has become more prominent. Many students are busy all day to cope with college English four to six exams, resulting in a large number of English applications Gaofendineng students. Teaching and learning activities in many schools teaching mainly measure only the ability to identify the training of students, not training, capacity-building. This is bound to result in abnormal development of student ability, reflected in listening, speaking, reading, writing and translating in various skills, and causing reading skills, "thriving", and other skills, the results of severe dysplasia. Therefore, how to comprehensively improve the quality of college English teaching, English teaching in the university problems to be solved. ��
Ministry of National Education and other departments to vigorously promote the use of computers for the teaching of college English teaching new attempt. Higher Education Department on January 3, 2004 issued by the "College English Curriculum Requirements" �� �� [1] �� (trial) clearly stated that "we should make full use of multimedia and network technology development has brought opportunities, adopt new teaching model to improve the original teacher taught a single classroom-based teaching model. The new teaching model should be based on modern Information technology as support, especially in networking technology to enable the teaching of English toward personalized learning, free from constraints of time and place of learning, Active learning direction. "" Teaching reform is an important indicator of the success of the students individualized learning methods to the formation and development of student self-learning ability. "newly promulgated National College English Syllabus (as amended) explicitly pointed out:" Modernization The teaching methods, such as audio, video, film, television, Internet and multimedia courseware for the use of help to improve the quality of teaching college English, schools should take positive measures to actively promote the rational use of these teaching methods. "All these show that the Computer assisted language learning (Computer Assisted Language Learning, or CALL) is a new era of an effective medium of instruction methods. The so-called computer-assisted language learning is to use the computer as a primary learning media to carry out learning activities, namely the use of computers to support student learning. The computer can not only show a simple text, numbers, characters such as teaching information, but also the output animation, video, images and sounds, can be very easy to do information, graphics, and text, sound, video, and Mao, this multi-dimensional three-dimensional educational information dissemination of information greatly enhanced realism and expression. As a new learning model of modernization, it is considered to be foreign language teaching and learning in the most innovative areas, its advantages become more and more people's positive attention. At present, many cities have established a network of universities Computer Aided Language Learning Center (Learning Center), that is, self-learning center (Self-access center), for students to foreign language self-study. In foreign countries, such a learning mode has already spread to each of the comprehensive universities. The reason is because it conforms to the requirements of college English teaching reform. With the computers and network development and popularization of computer networks has become a lot of learning to conduct self-study language learners is one of the main ways. This paper will explore multiple perspectives to computer-assisted language learning for the college English teaching and learning in a supportive role. ��
1, computer-assisted language teaching and student learning autonomy training ��
Research on computer-assisted language teaching began in the mid-20th century, 50. In the past 20 years, many studies have proven that this model in improving the language ability of students and to promote self-learning ability in a positive role. The computer can not only show a simple text, numbers, characters such as teaching information, but also the output animation, video, images and sounds, can be very easy to do information, graphics, and text, sound, video, and Mao, this multi-dimensional three-dimensional educational information dissemination of information greatly enhanced realism and expression. In addition, the popularity of the network, the computer-assisted language learning is also equipped with a new content, knowledge of the sources of richer, more diverse forms of information. In the network environment, computer-assisted self-learning, students can get to a more extensive learning materials, such as FLASH, animation, movies, online dictionaries, online courses, online chat rooms, bulletin boards and so became the students to gain knowledge and information channel. Through the network, students can visit the Web site, the search to a more a wealth of information and content. In addition, students can also use e-mail, online chat, BBS, etc. with teachers or fellow students for information feedback and communication. In such convenient conditions, students with identified learning objectives, we can according to their own circumstances, to choose the time to set up their own learning goals, selecting learning objectives can be achieved corresponding learning contents, learning content according to choose their own learning to find the required information, and then the gradual completion of the learning goals one by one and eventually to achieve learning objectives. In addition, the Computer Assisted Language Learning Center, there are still students of computer science courses in self-study courses, teachers, courseware, a large number of listening materials, and self-evaluation software. Students according to their needs and interests to choose their own learning materials for their own learning. Another benefit of this study is that students are free to choose time to learn, rather than by factors such as time and space restrictions. In short, the "computer-assisted self-learning to overcome the traditional classroom in terms of time, teaching content, fear of making mistakes in public, as well as teachers, such as excessive interference constraints, to provide students with a whole new learning Experience �� �� [6] ��". Therefore, computer-assisted language learning can promote students to develop autonomy, to help them learn to be responsible for their own learning, thereby enhancing learning efficiency. ��
Second, computer-assisted teaching on the learning ability of students to enhance ��
In today's knowledge-proliferation of ever-changing era of social change, self-learning capabilities that "learning to learn" capability becomes particularly important. As Knowles �� �� [5] �� pointed out: "One important objective of education is to help people to establish the concept of lifelong learning and mastering the skills of independent learning." Thus, regardless of their educational functions from the University or from the era of development of the talent demands for the quality point of view, enhance the learning ability of university students all have very important significance. �� reposted elsewhere in the paper for free download

What is learning? Some scholars have put "learning capacity" is defined as: In the regular classroom teaching and learning process, students have the knowledge and skills, based on the continuous acquisition of new knowledge and apply such knowledge shown by the activities of the intelligence and the ability of non-intelligence factors �� �� [2] ��. The connotation of learning: First, identify problems and develop problem-solving skills; second is to collect, analyze and use information; third is learning to share and cooperation. It is manifested in four aspects: First, awareness, motivation, habits; second is to obtain, analyze and use information: Three is the evaluation and reflection; Fourth expression. ��
Therefore, the ability to learn there are three particularly important: First, how quickly, the full and effective selection, storage and access to required information; Second, how do use it to solve the problem; third is how to break the routine kind of re-combination, use it to the creation of new ideas. We need to learn not only knowledge, but how to use knowledge and innovative special skills. A fast computer networks, as well as its rich information resources just to meet the needs of students. Learn to use the network of infinite resources and learn to analyze and use is no doubt conducive to learning ability. And this is the traditional books can not do. ��
3, computer-assisted language learning to improve teaching intensive reading ��
Intensive courses in college English major component of the course, but also students to gain knowledge of the main positions. Large amounts of information for teachers to pass the time if there is a computer as a supplementary teaching tool will reach the more desirable teaching effectiveness. For example, teachers can use VCD, slides, PPT courseware, movies, audio and other methods some of the seemingly dull, obscure the contents of the interpretation and rendering out. This can be achieved illustrations vivid and flexible. In addition, PPT classroom courseware can be multiplied the amount of information, saving the time and writing on the blackboard to teach writing so that teachers freed from the chalk powder. Application of this model is not only teaching effectiveness has been strengthened, and can mobilize interest and participation of students enthusiasm for learning there was a marked help. However, multi-media teaching methods course, there are many advantages, but traditional teaching methods still have many advantages of multimedia technology can not be replaced. Thus, in the use of multimedia technology in college English teaching, teachers should make every effort to achieve the following points: �� to make abstract, esoteric, complex teaching content become concrete, simple, intuitive, vivid, so students can understand and grasp. �� the use of colorful, dynamic and delightful multimedia courseware, to stimulate students interest in learning. �� Multimedia Courseware to be capacity-rich unit within hours of teaching contents, in order to effectively improve teaching efficiency and enhance effectiveness of teaching. �� make full use of the information-rich extra-curricular teaching, and expand the scope of teaching and expand the students knowledge �� �� [3] ��. ��
4, computer-assisted language teaching and teaching with the help of hearing ��
Computer Assisted Language Teaching of College English teaching to enhance the role of listening is very clear. Through the computer can create an almost real context. Vygostsky have pointed out that "people are relying on exposure to the real natural, language-rich environment in the acquisition of language." "Using Multimedia to students," to provide sound, images, graphics, text, and Mao's English environment for students to use these devices and teaching aids to visual, listening and speaking activities, very helpful to students in a vivid as possible and approximate the true nature of the Context of Secondary School English as well as �� �� [4] �� ". ��
Currently the University of the more widely used in multimedia teaching materials of "New College English", "Experiencing English", "New Horizon College English" and so on. These materials are available supporting CD-ROM and online teaching management platform can not only provide a large number of real voice material, but also the realization of human-machine interaction for the students self-study provides a good condition. Their original choice of material is a foreign-based, taking into account the diversity of materials and language authenticity. Make full use of modern educational technology model. If teachers and then use some of the difficulty is moderate, lively and interesting teaching materials, such as "traveled the United States" as a supplementary teaching software for students to create a more authentic language environment, you can further enhance students interested in hearing the English language, the language more for the intuitive feelings. Therefore, based on multimedia and networking can contribute to the diversification of listening teaching students self-learning and improve student interest in learning and traditional teaching methods with the incomparable advantage. ��
5 Conclusion ��
Multimedia technology is an effective means of supporting the teaching of English is conducive to the classroom, teachers and flexible scheduling, contributed to an effective communication activities, and to enhance self-learning ability of students, the University has made great teaching and learning of English secondary effect. College English teaching using computer-assisted teaching of modern trends in education reform, but also the inevitable development of the times. Majority of the teaching of English who want to sharpen their level of modern educational technology, give full play to the role of multimedia technologies, appropriately, according to local conditions to the use of multimedia tools, and strive to provide students with a good learning environment. ��
References
1. Department of Higher Education. College English Curriculum Requirements [Z]. Beijing, 2004 ��
2. Zhou. Collaborative Learning and Teaching in a closed network. China Audio-Visual Education, 2000; (5) ��
3. DENG Fan-yan. Multi-media technology in College English Teaching and Thinking. Machinery Industry Education Research, 2001; (3) ��
4. Rensu Zhen. Strategy-based Approach and the Teaching of Foreign Language Listening. Foreign language profession, 2003; (2) ��
5.Knowles, MSSelf-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers [M]. New York: Association Press, 1975 ��